OnPolicing Blog

For every police officer, there is a defining period that shapes not only their performance on the job but also their mindset, ethics, and approach to community engagement: field training. This stage, often the bridge between the academy and full-duty service, is where officers begin to understand what it truly means to serve. Field training is a crucial training process where policing in theory meets the realities of on-the-job training and daily challenges. It’s where knowledge and skills are tested under real-world conditions and where the seeds of either effective practices or problematic behaviors can be planted. In this context, field training officers (FTOs) are more than trainers—they are mentors, culture-bearers, role models, and translators of agency values. They don’t just teach policies and procedures; they demonstrate how officers should engage with community members, solve problems, and make critical decisions under pressure.

Despite its pivotal role in shaping the next generation of law enforcement, field training remains an understudied element of policing. The National Policing Institute (NPI), with support from the Bureau of Justice Assistance (BJA) through the VALOR Officer Safety and Wellness Program, is conducting a comprehensive national scan of field training practices. Here’s what we know, what we don’t, and why this work matters now more than ever.

Understanding Field Training: More Than Just Mentorship

Field training typically follows a recruit’s successful completion of the police academy. According to a 2022 survey, state and local officers receive an average of 503 hours—or 12.6 weeks—of field training. This intensive period is meant to hone skills, build competency, familiarize recruits with policing culture, and provide hands-on guidance from experienced officers during the FTO program. Yet, not all field training is created equal. Programs can vary in terms of structure, FTO selection and preparation, and how trainees are evaluated. While the intention behind field training is nearly universal, the implementation often is not.

Two Main Models, One Big Question

The San Jose Model, developed in the 1970s, remains one of the most widely used field training frameworks. It employs behavior modification as its primary learning strategy, where trainees are evaluated daily on their performance for multiple weeks using a structured skills checklist to track their growth. Critics of the San Jose Model suggest it lacks a foundation in adult learning principles and places an overemphasis on the evaluation process, which may hinder reflective learning. The model uses structured evaluations like the daily observation report (DOR) to track the recruit’s progress and growth. Additionally, they contend that the model falls short in promoting key principles of community-oriented policing and collaborative problem-solving.

In response, the Police Training Officer (PTO) model was developed with support from the U.S. Department of Justice’s Office of Community-Oriented Policing and Problem-Solving (COPS Office). The PTO model incorporates problem-based learning and adult learning practices to support an officer’s learning and development of leadership and problem-solving skills when it comes to public safety. It prioritizes weekly coaching and training reports, reflective journaling exercises, and mid-term and final evaluations of trainees. While the PTO model addresses many of the concerns associated with the San Jose Model, adoption remains inconsistent, and research comparing the two is sparse. How do these models prepare officers? Which model truly works best—and for whom?

How Field Training Impacts Officer Behavior—For Better or Worse

One of the most compelling findings from recent research is just how profoundly FTOs influence trainee behavior during their probationary period and beyond. For example, in Dallas, data showed that variation in new officer misconduct complaints was linked to the FTOs who trained them. In Indianapolis, similar patterns emerged. Trainees paired with FTOs who had a lower history of force incidents took longer to have their first use-of-force encounter, suggesting that FTO behavior sets the baseline for what trainees perceive as acceptable. This ripple effect shows the stakes are high. Who trains our officers may matter just as much as what they’re taught at the academy. The role of FTOs in shaping police culture, decision-making, and behavior cannot be overstated.

The Trainees’ Perspective: What Works—and What Doesn’t

Research examining perceptions of field training programs suggests that most trainees and FTOs express general satisfaction with field training. Trainees who report the most positive experiences cite clear expectations, supportive agency environments, and regular, open feedback. Those with less positive experiences often describe overly rigid performance evaluations, inadequate support, and emotional exhaustion, which often reduce the effectiveness of a well-intentioned training phase.

Successful field training programs expose trainees to a variety of calls and policing environments, incorporate reflective learning, and provide both formal and informal feedback. Practices like debriefing—where FTOs and trainees discuss incidents together—help transform raw experience into structured learning. Yet, challenges abound. Trainees may feel underprepared for the transition from academy to patrol. FTOs report insufficient support and preparation. Some feel isolated and unsupported in their roles, which can increase the risk of burnout and diminish program effectiveness.

What We Don’t Know—But Need To

Despite its importance, field training remains woefully under-researched. Major gaps persist in understanding:

• How different models are implemented across agencies
• Best practices for training FTOs
• The most effective criteria for selecting and pairing FTOs and trainees
• The impact of field training on the well-being of patrol officers, decision-making, and retention in law enforcement careers

The research that does exist is often dated, focused on small samples, or anecdotal. Given the national conversation around organizational change and accountability in policing, the need for empirical data on field training practices has never been more urgent.

NPI’s National Scan of Field Training Practices

Recognizing this knowledge gap, the National Policing Institute has launched a multi-phase national scan of field training practices. With support from the Bureau of Justice Assistance and in partnership with the Institute for Intergovernmental Research and the National Association of Field Training Officers (NAFTO), this project is designed to answer key questions:

• What are the current practices across the country?
• How do field training programs differ in structure, evaluation, and philosophy?
• What challenges do agencies face in preparing both trainees and FTOs?
• What is the perceived impact of field training on officers’ resilience, decision-making, and community engagement?
• Is there room for innovation within the traditional training models and evaluation guidelines?
• How can we improve field training programs for better preparedness?

Why This Work Matters Now

We’re in a transformative moment for policing. Community expectations are shifting, departments are under increased scrutiny, and a new generation of officers is entering the profession. Law enforcement leaders are looking for ways to foster professionalism and resilience among their ranks.

Field training is a linchpin in this transformation. It’s the moment when academy ideals are either reinforced or eroded. The right FTO can build a culture of accountability and compassion. The wrong one can pass on dangerous habits that shape careers—and communities—for decades. By better understanding and enhancing field training, we’re shaping the future of American policing.

Let’s Work Together

Contact the National Policing Institute today to learn how your agency can collaborate in research examining field training. Whether you’re using the San Jose model, the PTO model, or a custom approach, your experiences can help inform national best practices.

Through this collaborative effort, we aim to identify what works, what doesn’t, and how to build stronger, more resilient officers from the very beginning of their careers.

FAQs About Field Training

1. What is the meaning of field training?
   Field training refers to the on-the-job training phase where recruits transition from the academy to real-time duties. It bridges theoretical knowledge with practical application in the field.
2. What does a police field training officer do?
   An FTO is responsible not only for supervising and guiding new officers but also for instilling agency values, ensuring proper adherence to training manuals, and  evaluating performance.
3. How long does field training take?
   The length varies, but the average training process lasts 12.6 weeks. Each training phase is designed to develop specific skills, including decision-making and patrol readiness.
4. How do police field training programs assess trainee performance?
   Performance evaluations are conducted through structured tools such as daily observation reports and include metrics such as communication, problem-solving skills, and adherence to policies.
5. What are the key challenges faced during police field training?
   Common issues include challenges recruiting and retaining effective FTOs, perceived inadequate agency support and burnout among FTOs, insufficient preparation for trainees and trainers, and a narrow focus on quantitative evaluation negatively impacting learning.
6. How does police field training differ from academy training?
   Academy training emphasizes classroom learning, while field training focuses on on-the-job training and applying lessons in real-world patrol duties under the supervision of an FTO and an evaluation process.

References

Adger, C., Ross, M., & Sloan, C. (2025, March 27). The effect of field training officers on police use of force [Working Paper].

Belur, J., Agnew-Pauley, W., Mcginley, B., & Tompson, L. (2020). A systematic review of police recruit training programmes. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 14(1), 76–90.

Bergman, B. (2017). Reflexivity in police education: Voices of Swedish police officers on field training of probationers. Nordisk Politiforskning, 4(1), 68-88.

Buehler, E. D. (2024). State and local law enforcement training academies and recruits, 2022 – Statistical tables. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics.

Caro, C. A. (2011). Predicting state police officer performance in the field training officer program: What can we learn from the cadet’s performance in the training academy? American Journal of Criminal Justice, 36(4), 357–370.

Chappell, A. T. (2007). Community policing: Is field training the missing link? Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 30(3), 498–517.

CNA. (2021). Impacts on field training officer programs – Pairing trainers and trainees. Arlington, VA: CNA. https://www.cna.org/reports/2021/10/IMPACTS-ON-FIELD-TRAINING-PAIRING.pdf.

COPS Office. (2001). PTO: An overview and introduction. A problem-based learning manual for training and evaluating police trainers. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services.

Dulin, A., Dulin, L., & Patino, J. (2020). Transferring police academy training to the street: The field training experience. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 35(4), 432–442.

Engelson, W. (1999). The organizational values of law enforcement agencies: The impact of field training officers in the socialization of police recruits to law enforcement organizations. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 14(2), 11–19.

Fischer, M. A. (n.d.). Best practices guide: Field training for today’s recruits. Alexandria, VA: International Association of Chiefs of Police. https://www.theiacp.org/sites/default/files/2018-08/BP-FieldTrainingforTodaysRecruits.pdf.

Getty, R. M., Worrall, J. L., & Morris, R. G. (2016). How far from the tree does the apple fall? Field training officers, their trainees, and allegations of misconduct. Crime and Delinquency, 62(6), 821–839.

Groppi, M. (2021). Recruit conservation warden field training: A qualitative analysis of the San Jose police department field training model applied to natural resource law enforcement. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 23(3), 253–264.

Haar, R. N. (2001). The making of a community policing officer: The impact of basic training and occupational socialization on police recruits. Police Quarterly, 4(4), 402–433.

Hoel, L. (2020). “Police students” experience of participation and relationship during in-field training. Police Practice & Research, 21(6), 576–590.

Jenkins, M., Dockstader, J., Oster, S., Woodmansee, T., & O’Connor, M. (2021). Field training programs in law enforcement. Arlington, VA: CNA. https://www.cna.org/reports/2021/10/Field-Training-Programs-in-Law-Enforcement.pdf.

Margolis, Y. Y. (2021). Examining the implementation fidelity of a police field training officer program: A program evaluation perspective: A mixed methods approach [Doctoral dissertation]. West Chester University.

Novakowski, M. (2003). Exploring field training within British Columbia’s independent police agencies: It’s the singer, not the song [Master’s thesis]. Royal Roads University.

Pandey, R. (2023). Rewiring police officer training networks to reduce forecasted use of force [Doctoral dissertation]. Purdue University.

Pitts, S. (2006). The study of a contemporary approach to post-academy recruit training [Capstone]. Golden Gate University.

Pitts, S., Glensor, R. W., & Peak, K. J. (2007). The police training officer (PTO) program: A contemporary approach to postacademy recruit training. The Police Chief, 74, 114–121.

Police Executive Research Forum. (2022). Transforming police recruit training: 40 guiding principles. Washington, DC: PERF. https://www.policeforum.org/assets/TransformingRecruitTraining.pdf.

President’s Task Force on 21^st Century Policing. (2015). Final report of the president’s task force on 21^st century policing. Washington, DC: Office of Community-Oriented Policing Services.

Scott, J. (2010). Survey: The status of field training. The Police Chief, 77, 66.

Tyler, M. A., & McKenzie, W. E. (2014). Training by the dashboard lights: Police training officers’ perspectives. Studies in the Education of Adults, 46(1), 74–90.

Warners, R. (2010). The field training experience: Perspectives of field training officers and trainees. The Police Chief, 77, 58–64.